Monique Craig
The domestication of the horse has played a pivotal role in advancing humankind by providing immense social and economic advantages over centuries. Its domestication provided humans with a means to travel further and faster – allowing for a greater exchange of ideas and goods with distant cultures. The horse also improved the standard of living of early cultures via its use for farming and meat consumption. The horse was also of great advantage in warfare, especially when in conflict with civilizations which did not have horses. The use of horses for war started at the dawn of their domestication and finally ended after World War Two! Throughout centuries, horses, donkeys, and mules paid a terrible toll for their use in war. During WW1, for instance, the British army alone lost 484,000 horses. No data is available on equid war casualties accumulated over the centuries, but it is easy to assume that the numbers must be staggering. In modern affluent countries, the horse’s role has shifted to a more recreational one (pleasure riding and different forms of equestrian competitions) rather than one of necessity. But is this true? Well, not completely, since horses are still processed for meat and other products. In fact, the number of horses used for recreational purposes is a small percentage of the total horse population. The largest number of equids live in developing countries. Their numbers amount to about 85% of the world’s equid population. These equids still play a vital role in the economy of developing countries as they are routinely used for agriculture and transport along with being a source of food. Horses which are used for recreational purposes rarely live with the same owners throughout their life. On average, horses change ownership six times during their lifetime. The prime reasons for this are attributed to loss of interest in owning horses, health of the owner, and financial hardship. Often discarded horses are sold for meat. Has concern with animal welfare significantly improved the overall status of the horse? At this stage, the answer is ‘not yet’ – but it is changing for the better. Why are humans so careless about life in general? Our genetics and evolutionary past seem to have predisposed us to deadly violence. Aggression and violence exist in the animal kingdom for purposes of obtaining food, maintaining social order, mating and protecting offsprings, etc. Unfortunately, humans have a rather uncanny penchant for lethal violence which goes beyond the realm of instinctual aggression. Humans kill everything and everyone, family members, strangers, for fun, and kill themselves. With such a violent record, it seems hard to believe that humans are even capable of showing compassion and altruism, but indeed they are! Given the right social environment, humans tend to be caring and often selfless, such as donating money, volunteering time to service organizations, and even risking their own lives to save others.
The question remains open on whether our species will be capable of finding a balance between our aggressive ancestral instincts, our economic pursuits and nature’s needs? Our fast-expanding technological world may present an added challenge, as it tends to embrace a dissociative view of nature. Let us hope that humans will find a way through these challenges.
One may ask whether domestication is advantageous to horses (and other domesticated animals)? It is indeed a tricky question to answer since generally only the human perspective is considered. Domesticated animals provide human economic benefits (meat, wool, and milk production) and emotional support in the case of companion animals. The practicality of doing away with domesticated animals seems unreasonable. However, there is a need for balance between ethical and unethical use of animals. Human search for the best ideal look or most productive animal seems often to overcome functionality and the welfare of an animal. In other words, centuries of selective breeding have introduced alarming disorders to our domesticated animals from pets to animals intended for wool, meat and/or milk production. Brachycephalic airway syndrome in flat faced dogs (Boston terrier, French bulldogs and such) is a genetic disorder resulting from intentionally breeding dogs for cosmetic appearance. Wool sheep can no longer shed their coats naturally, they depend on humans. Horse breeding has also introduced genetic disorders and other calamities. The horse’s genetic robustness has been dwindling over the past 2000 years. A recent study of Sintashta and Scythian horses found in ancient burial sites shows that these horses preserved a larger diversity of male lineages up to 2300 years ago. The Sintashta (2100 to 1800 BCE) and Scythian (700 BCE to 200 CE) culture – along with other early horse cultures – were nomadic. These cultures used horses for meat, milk, and transportation. Their horses did not live in confined areas such as enclosed pastures or stables. Rather, they were allowed to roam mostly freely over large territories. Stallions, mares, and foals cohabited in herds – allowing for a more natural herd structure and management. Genetic results on Scythian horses showed no signs of inbreeding. Scythian horses were also bred for robustness. Their horses carried a total of 121 genes, most of which are involved in the development of forelimbs. These horses did not carry mutation genes of ambling gaits found in modern gaited horse. Early domestication did not seem to negatively impact the horse in terms of harmful genetic mutations. Unfortunately for the horse, a significant demographic collapse of its population started to occur around 2300 years ago. This resulted in a reduction of its genetic diversity. As time further elapsed, the Y chromosome diversity continued to diminish so much so that all domesticated horses virtually carry the same or highly similar Y chromosome! In current breeding practices, a valuable stallion can easily breed over 200 mares a year – over multiple years – a practice that may not be genetically horse-wise considering the increase in harmful mutations already accumulated over the last 2000 years. As working horses transitioned into a more specialized niche such as sport and recreation, breed specific genetic disorders have increased. For instance, Friesian horses have a high inbreeding coefficient and are prone to genetic defects found in skeletal, circulatory and digestive systems.
Some Quarter horses suffer from hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) which is a muscular disease caused by a genetic mutation which disrupts the sodium ion channel and results in an excessive amount of potassium in the blood. This causes muscles to contract more readily. Horses with HYPP can experience unpredictable attacks of muscle tremors or paralysis. In mild cases, this genetic disease can be managed, however it is not advisable to breed horses carrying this gene mutation. The HYPP was tracked down to a popular quarter horse stallion named ‘Impressive’. Impressive died at 26 years old in 1995. He sired 2250 foals, all HYPP carriers. Genetic testing has been very helpful to prevent further spread of this disorder. In 2007, the American Quarter Horses Association began to require all descendants of Impressive to be tested.
Polysaccharide storage myopathy (PSSM) results from an abnormal accumulation of glycogen, a form of sugar stored in muscles. This causes episodes of muscle stiffness and pain after exercise. PSSM can be found in many breeds but appears to be more common in Quarter horses and Arabians. It is a genetic disorder which can be passed down to the offspring of PSSM horses. PSSM can be managed via diet and is in general not life threatening. Genetic testing is also available to diagnose this issue. Fragile Foal Syndrome (FFS) is often found in warmbloods and some thoroughbreds — this disorder is lethal in foals. This genetic mutation causes hyperextensible limbs and joints due to collagen deficiency. Most foals affected with this issue die in gestation or are non-viable after birth. Seventeen percent of Warmbloods are carriers of this gene. Breeders can prevent FFS by DNA testing. Interestingly, quite a few top international dressage competition warmbloods carry this genetic disorder.
Modern breeding practices are established to assess temperament and rideability in horses. This practice seems reasonable at first glance but one may ask at what costs to the mental and physical health of the horse? As in early domesticated horses, modern Mongolian horses are still semi feral animals living in a harsh climate (temperature ranges – 42 C to + 40 C on the average). To survive under such conditions, Mongolian horses need to be resilient, and intelligent to fend for themselves. The Mongolian horse probably displays a more independent personality which is necessary for its survival. This trait may not be particularly suitable for horses adapted to more controlled situations such as stables, fenced pastures and non-professional riders. Are our modern horses being ‘dumbed down’ genetically? Maybe.
Current specialization in horse breeding with a focus on creating horses for specific riding purposes has pushed the limits of innate biomechanics of the horse. This breeding approach – along with the introduction of genetic disorders – has deleterious effects on the long-term physical soundness of a horse. Horses in the USA are not specifically bred for meat or allowed to be slaughtered. Instead, horses and other equids (donkeys and mules) deemed no longer useful are sent to auctions. Hundreds of auctions are held throughout the USA.
Discarded equids are often healthy animals, such as ponies, riding horses of different breeds, draft horses, mules, and donkeys. The treatment of equids at auction houses is often substandard in terms of proper veterinary care for injured animals and adequate food and water accessibility. Currently, there are no federal laws specifically addressing horse auctions.
Some horses are purchased by private owners looking for an inexpensive animal or by rescue organizations, but most auction horses are sold to killer buyers. These horses (referred to as ‘kill pen horses’) are then shipped to Canada or Mexico for slaughter. In 2023, approximative 20,000 horses were trucked over the USA border. Kill pen horses endure a terrible fate partly because of the long journey to foreign processing plants and due to the lack of enforceable slaughter regulations in foreign countries. Slaughter is not euthanasia; the slaughter methods require the horses to be rendered insensible to pain with the first application of a stunning device before being shackled and dismembered. Horses being flight animal tend to fight while in the kill box and get injured prior to be stunned. Worse, not all horses are fully dead prior to being rendered. The major horse meat eating countries are China, Russia, the EU and South America. Globally about 4.7 million horses are consumed every year. In countries other than the USA, horse meat comes from discarded horses but also from horses specifically bred for food. Large breeds such as draft horses are ideal for meat production. In France, about 88% of draft horses are raised for meat consumption. Incidentally, donkeys and mules are also eaten in most countries, not just horses. Donkey hides are very popular in China and their demand has skyrocketed in recent years. Their hides are used in a traditional Chinese medicine called Ejiao (pronounced – eh-gee-yow).
The horse is also used for blood collection. Due to its large size and sociable temperament, the horse makes it ideal for collecting blood, serum and other substances to produce pharmaceuticals for humans and other animals. Horse blood has been and still is lifesaving to both humans and other animals. For instance, anti-venom has been derived from horses’ blood since 1884. Reliable diphtheria vaccines were only available after WWII. In the early 20th Century, the only way to cure (not prevent) the disease was via diphtheria serum derived from horse blood. Horse blood serum is used in anti-toxin serum. There are no regulated guidelines for harvesting equine blood.
Pregnant mares’ urine is harvested for the development of hormone therapy replacement (HRT) for menopausal women. These mares spend most of their lives tied up in small stalls with no room to lay down as their urine is collected. Their foals are sold to the meat market and so are the mares which are no longer fertile. Pregnant mares’ blood is also harvested for a hormone called (pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin – PMSG) used in the pork industry. The hormone helps to induce heat cycle in weaned sows to increase the number of pregnancies! Mare blood serum is most potent during early pregnancy and to ensure high potency serum, mares are speedily aborted (either by injection or manually) to hasten the next pregnancy. The treatment of these mares is often at least inappropriate and sometimes appalling depending on the countries where mare blood is harvested.
Mares that are no longer useful are sent to the meat market. One may wonder if it is safe and ethical to eat meat raised in such an industrial manner.
Despite these sad facts, some lucky horses have always had and still have very good owners. The bond between humans and horses is based on mutual respect and love. In recent years, horse owners have become more aware of the need for better treatment of horses and animals at large. Research on equine behavior and equine veterinary medicine provide an excellent source of education for horse owners.
The great Edward O. Wilson (in Search of Nature – Altruism and Aggression) has probably summed up our genetic limitations and the potential adaptivity towards a better society: …our primitive old genes will therefore have to carry the load of much more cultural changes in the future. To an extent not yet known, we trust – we insist – that human nature can adapt to more encompassing forms of altruism and social justice. Genetic biases can be trespassed on, passions averted and redirected, and ethics altered; and the human genius for making contracts can continue to be applied to achieve healthier and freer societies.
The horse is indeed a mirror of our relationship with nature and one another.
References
- Scythian horses
Scythian horse breeding unveiled: Lessons for animal domestication, Ludovic Orlando, University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Science.
Ten years of the horse reference genome: insights into equine biology, domestication and population dynamics in the post genome era, T. Randsepp et al.
- Genetic robustness of modern horses
Mitochondrial genomes from modern horses reveal the major haplogroups that underwent domestication, Alessandro Achillia, Anna Olivieri, et al. Edited by Francisco Mauro Salzano, Universidad Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil, and approved December 22, 2011.
Grayson-Jockey Club Research Foundation: Review Article Applied equine genetics, C. J. Finno and D. L. Bannasch. Received: 06.12.13; Equine Veterinary Journal ISSN 0425-1644 DOI: 10.1111/evj.12294.
Genetic Diversity in the Modern Horse Illustrated from Genome-Wide SNP Data. J.L. Petersen, J.R. Mickelson, E.G. Cothran, L.S. Andersson, J. Axelsson, et al. PLoSONE8(1):e54997.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054997, 2013.
Inbreeding depression and durability in the North American Thoroughbred horse. Emmeline W. Hill, Beatrice A. McGivney, and David E. MacHugh. Animal Genetics. 2023;54:408–411.
- Breed specific genetic disorder
Genetic diversity and measures to reduce inbreeding in Friesian Horses. B.J. Ducro, J. Windig, I. Hellinga, and H. Bovenhuis. Proceedings, 10th World Congress of Genetics Applied to Livestock Production.
Homozygosity mapping approach identifies a missense mutation in equine cyclophilin B (PPIB) associated with HERDA in the American Quarter Horse. Robert C. Tryon, Stephen D. White, Danika L. Bannasch. Received 3 February 2007 www.elsevier.com genomics 90(2007) 93-102.
Hanoverian F/W-line contributes to segregation of Warmblood fragile foal syndrome type 1 variant in Warmblood horses. J. Metzger, O. Kreft, H. Sieme, et al. PLOD1:c.2032G, Equine Vet J. 2021;53:51–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13271
Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis: 14 Years Later. Sharon J. Spier, © 2006 AAE.
Clinical characteristics and muscle glycogen concentrations in warmblood horses with polysaccharide storage myopathy. Susannah S. Lewis, Anne M. Nicholson, Zoë J. Williams, and Stephanie J. Valberg. AVMA Publications, Volume 78: Issue 11, Online Publication Date: 01 Nov 2017
- Kill pen and slaughter of horses and horse meat consumption
Horse Slaughter in North America: U.S. Live Exports Fade as Foreign Demand Abates. Investigated and co-authored by Animal Wellness Action, Center for a Humane Economy and Animals’ Angels. Center for a Humane Economy, 2023.
Carcass characteristics, meat quality and nutritional value of horsemeat: A review. José M. Lorenzo, María Victoria Sarriés, Alessandra Tateo, Paolo Polidori, Daniel Franco, Massimiliano Lanza, Meat Science, Volume 96, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 1478-1488, ISSN 0309-1740, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.12.006.
Horse Meat Consumption – Between Scandal and Reality. Silvius Stanciu, Procedia Economics and Finance 23 ( 2015 ) 697 – 703. 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V
- Donkeys hide trade
Species-specific identification of donkey hide gelatin and its adulterants using marker peptides. Zhang J, Wu M, Ma Z, Zhang Y, Cao H, PLoS ONE 17(8): e0273021. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273021, 2022.
Telecoupling of the Trade of Donkey-Hides between Botswana and China: Challenges and Opportunities. Dimpho Malebogo Matlhola , and Ruishan Chen. Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science (Ministry of Education), School of Geographical Sciences, Institute of Eco-Chongming (IEC), East China Normal University. Received: 13 December 2019; Accepted: 20 February 2020; Published: 26 February 2020 -SUSTAINABILITY
The Potential for New Donkey Farming Systems to Supply the Growing Demand for Hides. Richard Bennett and Simone Pfuderer. Received: 18 February 2020; Accepted: 9 April 2020; Published: 20 April 2020 ANIMALS
- Blood collection, etc.
Recommendations for Ensuring Good Welfare of Horses Used for Industrial Blood, Serum, or Urine Production. Xavier Manteca Vilanova, Bonnie Beaver, Mette Uldahl and Patricia V. Turner, ANIMALS.
Lessons about the Unwanted Horse, Animal Welfare Council www.animalwelfarecouncil.org
Horse Welfare During Equine Chorionic Gonadotropin (eCG) Production. Xavier Manteca Vilanova, Nancy De Briyne, Bonnie Beaver and Patricia V. Received: 3 November 2019; Accepted: 28 November 2019; Published: 1 December 2019 published: Animals
- Altruism and Aggression
Edward O. Wilson, “In Search of Nature”, Island Press, 1996.